（转）Linux下PS命令详解
整理自：http://blog.chinaunix.net/space.php?uid=20564848&do=blog&id=74654
Linux中的ps命令是Process Status的缩写。ps命令用来列出系统中当前运行的那些进程。ps命令列出的是当前那些进程的快照，就是执行ps命令的那个时刻的那些进程，如果想要动态的显示进程信息，就可以使用top命令。要对进程进行监测和控制，首先必须要了解当前进程的情况，也就是需要查看当前进程，而 ps 命令就是最基本同时也是非常强大的进程查看命令。使用该命令可以确定有哪些进程正在运行和运行的状态、进程是否结束、进程有没有僵死、哪些进程占用了过多的资源等等。总之大部分信息都是可以通过执行该命令得到的。
ps 为我们提供了进程的一次性的查看，它所提供的查看结果并不动态连续的；如果想对进程时间监控，应该用 top 或者 htop 。
kill 命令用于杀死进程。
linux上进程有5种状态:
1. 运行(正在运行或在运行队列中等待)
2. 中断(休眠中, 受阻, 在等待某个条件的形成或接受到信号)
3. 不可中断(收到信号不唤醒和不可运行, 进程必须等待直到有中断发生)
4. 僵死(进程已终止, 但进程描述符存在, 直到父进程调用wait4()系统调用后释放)
5. 停止(进程收到SIGSTOP, SIGSTP, SIGTIN, SIGTOU信号后停止运行运行)
ps工具标识进程的5种状态码:
D 不可中断 uninterruptible sleep (usually IO)
R 运行 runnable (on run queue)
S 中断 sleeping
T 停止 traced or stopped
Z 僵死 a defunct (”zombie”) process
ps命令支持三种使用的语法格式
1.UNIX 风格，选项可以组合在一起，并且选项前必须有“-”连字符
2.BSD 风格，选项可以组合在一起，但是选项前不能有“-”连字符
3.GNU 风格的长选项，选项前有两个“-”连字符
能够混用这几种风格，但是可能会发生冲突。较多使用 UNIX 风格的ps命令。
日常生活中使用的ps命令的例子(UNIX 风格)。
1. 不加参数执行ps命令. 这是一个基本的 ps 使用
2. 显示所有当前进程. 使用 -a 参数。-a 代表 all。同时加上x参数会显示没有控制终端的进程。ps -ax | less
3. 根据用户过滤进程. 在需要查看特定用户进程的情况下，我们可以使用 -u 参数。
比如我们要查看用户'pungki'的进程，可以通过下面的命令： $ ps -u pungki
4. 通过cpu和内存使用来过滤进程. ps -aux | less 默认的结果集是未排序的。
可以通过 --sort命令来排序。. 根据 CPU 使用来升序排序. ps -aux --sort -pcpu | less
根据 内存使用 来升序排序 .ps -aux --sort -pmem | less
ps -aux --sort -pcpu,+pmem | head -n 10
5. 通过进程名和PID过滤
使用 -C 参数，后面跟你要找的进程的名字。比如想显示一个名为getty的进程的信息，就可以使用下面的命令：
$ ps -C getty
如果想要看到更多的细节，我们可以使用-f参数来查看格式化的信息列表：$ ps -f -C getty
6. 根据线程来过滤进程. 如果我们想知道特定进程的线程，可以使用-L 参数，后面加上特定的PID。$ ps -L 1213
7. 树形显示进程. 有时候我们希望以树形结构显示进程，可以使用 -axjf 参数。 $ps -axjf. 或者使用另一个命令:pstree
8. 显示安全信息. 如果想要查看现在有谁登入了你的服务器。可以使用ps命令加上相关参数:$ ps -eo pid,user,args
参数 -e 显示所有进程信息，-o 参数控制输出。Pid,User 和 Args参数显示PID，运行应用的用户和该应用。
9. 格式化输出root用户（真实的或有效的UID）创建的进程
系统管理员想要查看由root用户运行的进程和这个进程的其他相关信息时，可以通过下面的命令:
$ ps -U root -u root u
-U 参数按真实用户ID(RUID)筛选进程，它会从用户列表中选择真实用户名或 ID。真实用户即实际创建该进程的用户。
-u 参数用来筛选有效用户ID（EUID）。
最后的u参数用来决定以针对用户的格式输出，由User, PID, %CPU, %MEM, VSZ, RSS, TTY, STAT, START, TIME 和 COMMAND这几 列组成。
10. 使用PS实时监控进程状态. ps 命令会显示你系统当前的进程状态，但是这个结果是静态的。
当有一种情况，我们需要像上面第四点中提到的通过CPU和内存的使用率来筛选进程，并且我们希望结果能够每秒刷新一次。
为此，我们可以将ps命令和watch命令结合起来。$ watch -n 1 ‘ps -aux --sort -pmem, -pcpu’
如果输出太长，我们也可以限制它，比如前20条，我们可以使用head命令来做到。
$ watch -n 1 ‘ps -aux --sort -pmem, -pcpu | head 20’
这里的动态查看并不像top或者htop命令一样。但是使用ps的好处是你能够定义显示的字段，你能够选择你想查看的字段。
举个例子，如果你只需要看名为'pungki'用户的信息，你可以使用下面的命令：
$ watch -n 1 ‘ps -aux -U pungki u --sort -pmem, -pcpu | head 20’
-A 列出所有的进程
-w 显示加宽可以显示较多的资讯
-au 显示较详细的资讯
-aux 显示所有包含其他使用者的行程
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常用参数：
-A 显示所有进程（等价于-e）(utility)
-a 显示一个终端的所有进程，除了会话引线
-N 忽略选择。
-d 显示所有进程，但省略所有的会话引线(utility)
-x 显示没有控制终端的进程，同时显示各个命令的具体路径。dx不可合用。（utility）
-p pid 进程使用cpu的时间
-u uid or username 选择有效的用户id或者是用户名
-g gid or groupname 显示组的所有进程。
U username 显示该用户下的所有进程，且显示各个命令的详细路径。如:ps U zhang;(utility)
-f 全部列出，通常和其他选项联用。如：ps -fa or ps -fx and so on.
-l 长格式（有F,wchan,C 等字段）
-j 作业格式
-o 用户自定义格式。
v 以虚拟存储器格式显示
s 以信号格式显示
-m 显示所有的线程
-H 显示进程的层次(和其它的命令合用，如：ps -Ha)（utility）
e 命令之后显示环境（如：ps -d e; ps -a e）(utility)
h 不显示第一行
############################################################
ps命令常用用法（方便查看系统进程）
1）ps a 显示现行终端机下的所有程序，包括其他用户的程序。
2）ps -A 显示所有进程。
3）ps c 列出程序时，显示每个程序真正的指令名称，而不包含路径，参数或常驻服务的标示。
4）ps -e 此参数的效果和指定"A"参数相同。
5）ps e 列出程序时，显示每个程序所使用的环境变量。
6）ps f 用ASCII字符显示树状结构，表达程序间的相互关系。
7）ps -H 显示树状结构，表示程序间的相互关系。
8）ps -N 显示所有的程序，除了执行ps指令终端机下的程序之外。
9）ps s 采用程序信号的格式显示程序状况。
10）ps S 列出程序时，包括已中断的子程序资料。
11）ps -t<终端机编号> 指定终端机编号，并列出属于该终端机的程序的状况。
12）ps -u root 显示root用户信息
13）ps x 显示所有程序，不以终端机来区分。
最常用的方法是ps -aux,然后再利用一个管道符号导向到grep去查找特定的进程,然后再对特定的进程进行操作。
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实例3：显示所有进程信息，连同命令行
命令：ps -ef
实例4：ps 与grep 常用组合用法，查找特定进程
命令：ps -ef|grep ssh
实例5：将目前属于您自己这次登入的 PID 与相关信息列示出来
命令：ps -l
说明：
各相关信息的意义：
F 代表这个程序的旗标 (flag)， 4 代表使用者为 super user
S 代表这个程序的状态 (STAT)，关于各 STAT 的意义将在内文介绍
UID 程序被该 UID 所拥有
PID 就是这个程序的 ID ！
PPID 则是其上级父程序的ID
C CPU 使用的资源百分比
PRI 这个是 Priority (优先执行序) 的缩写，详细后面介绍
NI 这个是 Nice 值，在下一小节我们会持续介绍
ADDR 这个是 kernel function，指出该程序在内存的那个部分。如果是个 running的程序，一般就是 "-"
SZ 使用掉的内存大小
WCHAN 目前这个程序是否正在运作当中，若为 - 表示正在运作
TTY 登入者的终端机位置
TIME 使用掉的 CPU 时间。
CMD 所下达的指令为何
在预设的情况下， ps 仅会列出与目前所在的 bash shell 有关的 PID 而已，所以， 当我使用 ps -l 的时候，只有三个 PID。
实例6：列出目前所有的正在内存当中的程序
命令：ps aux
说明：
USER：该 process 属于那个使用者账号的
PID ：该 process 的号码
%CPU：该 process 使用掉的 CPU 资源百分比
%MEM：该 process 所占用的物理内存百分比
VSZ ：该 process 使用掉的虚拟内存量 (Kbytes)
RSS ：该 process 占用的固定的内存量 (Kbytes)
TTY ：该 process 是在那个终端机上面运作，若与终端机无关，则显示 ?，另外， tty1-tty6 是本机上面的登入者程序，若为 pts/0 等等的，则表示为由网络连接进主机的程序。
STAT：该程序目前的状态，主要的状态有
R ：该程序目前正在运作，或者是可被运作
S ：该程序目前正在睡眠当中 (可说是 idle 状态)，但可被某些讯号 (signal) 唤醒。
T ：该程序目前正在侦测或者是停止了
Z ：该程序应该已经终止，但是其父程序却无法正常的终止他，造成 zombie (疆尸) 程序的状态
START：该 process 被触发启动的时间
TIME ：该 process 实际使用 CPU 运作的时间
COMMAND：该程序的实际指令
实例7：列出类似程序树的程序显示
命令：ps -axjf
实例8：找出与 cron 与 syslog 这两个服务有关的 PID 号码
命令：ps aux | egrep '(cron|syslog)'
3. 输出指定的字段
命令：ps -o pid,ppid,pgrp,session,tpgid,comm
注意："ps aux"和"ps -aux"不相同。例如"-u"用来显示该用户的进程。但是"u"则是显示详细的信息。
BSD风格:在BSD风格的语法选项前不带连字符。例如: ps aux
UNIX/LINUX的风格：在linux风格的语法选项前面有一个破折号.例如: ps -ef
混合使用两种Linux系统上的语法风格是好事儿。例如“ps ax -f”。
1、显示所有进程：
$ ps ax
$ ps -ef
"u"或者"-f"参数来显示所有进程的详细信息
$ ps aux
$ ps -ef -f
注意:为什么用户列不显示我的用户名，但显示其他用户，如root、www等，对于所有的用户名（包括你）如果长度大于8个字符，然后ps将只显示UID，而不是用户名。
2、根据用户显示进程：
由进程的所属用户使用“-u”选项后跟用户名来显示。多个用户名可以提供以逗号分隔。
$ ps -f -u www-data
3、通过名字和进程ID显示进程：
通过名字或命令搜索进程，使用“-C”选项后面加搜索词。
$ ps -C apache2
4、根据CPU或者内存进行排序：
“–sort”选项由逗号分隔的多个字段可以用指定。此外，该字段可以带有前缀“-”或“”符号，表示降序或升序分别排序。通过进程列表进行排序有很多参数，你可以检查手册页的完整列表。
$ ps aux --sort=-pcpu,+pmem
$ ps aux --sort=-pcpu | head -5
5、用树的风格显示进程的层次关系：
许多进程实际上是一些父进程分的分支，知道这父子进程关系往往是有用的。在'–forest'选项将建立ASCII艺术风格层次的树视图。
下面的命令将搜索进程名字为Apache2，形成一个树结构来显示详细的信息。
$ ps -f --forest -C apache2
6、显示一个父进程的子进程：
这里有一个例子显示所有apache进程的分支
$ ps -o pid,uname,comm -C apache2
7、显示一个进程的线程：
“-L”选项将显示进程的线程。它可以用来显示特定进程的所有线程或者所有进程。
下面的命令将显示所有id为3150的进程所拥有的线程。
$ ps -p 3150 -L
8、改变要显示的列：
ps命令可以配置为只显示选中的列表。为了显示完整列表可以查看手册。
下面的命令只显示PID，用户名，CPU，内存和命令的列。
$ ps -e -o pid,uname,pcpu,pmem,comm
可以重命名列标签，相当的灵活。
$ ps -e -o pid,uname=USERNAME,pcpu=CPU_USAGE,pmem,comm
9、显示进程运行的时间：
表示进程的运行时间。对于运行的时间，列默认情况下是不显示的，可以使用“-O”选项查看。
$ ps -e -o pid,comm,etime
10、把ps命令变成一个实时查看器：
像往常一样，watch命令可以用来实时捕捉ps显示进程。简单的例子如下:
$ watch -n 1 'ps -e -o pid,uname,cmd,pmem,pcpu --sort=-pmem,-pcpu | head -15'
要对系统中进程进行监测控制，查看状态，内存，CPU的使用情况，使用命令：/bin/ps
（1） ps ：是显示瞬间进程的状态，并不动态连续；
（2） top：如果想对进程运行时间监控，应该用 top 命令；
（3） kill 用于杀死进程或者给进程发送信号；
（4） 查看文章最后的man手册，可以查看ps的每项输出的含义，to find: STANDARD FORMAT SPECIFIERS
===================================ps 的参数说明=============================
l 长格式输出；
u 按用户名和启动时间的顺序来显示进程；
j 用任务格式来显示进程；
f 用树形格式来显示进程；
a 显示所有用户的所有进程（包括其它用户）。显示所有进程
-a 显示同一终端下的所有程序
x 显示无控制终端的进程；
r 显示运行中的进程；
ww 避免详细参数被截断；
-A 列出所有的进程
-w 显示加宽可以显示较多的资讯
-au 显示较详细的资讯
-aux 显示所有包含其他使用者的进程
-e 显示所有进程,环境变量
-f 全格式
-h 不显示标题
-l 长格式
-w 宽输出
a 显示终端上地所有进程,包括其他用户地进程
r 只显示正在运行地进程
x 显示没有控制终端地进程
我们常用的选项是组合是 aux 或 lax，还有参数 f 的应用。
pids 只列出进程标识符,之间运用逗号分隔.该进程列表必须在命令行参数地最后一个选项后面紧接着给出,中间不能插入空格.比如：ps -f1,4,5 显示的是进程ID为1,4,5的进程
下介绍长命令行选项,这些选项都运用“--”开头：
--sort X[+|-] key [,[+|-] key [,…]] 从SORT KEYS段中选一个多字母键.“+”字符是可选地,因为默认地方向就是按数字升序或者词典顺序，“-”字符是逆序排序（即降序）.
比如： ps -jax -sort=uid,-ppid,+pid.
--help 显示帮助信息.
--version 显示该命令地版本信息.
在前面地选项说明中提到了排序键,接下来对排序键作进一步说明.需要注意地是排序中运用地值是ps运用地内部值,并非仅用于某些输出格式地伪值.排序键列表见下表.
============排序键列表==========================
c cmd 可执行地简单名称
C cmdline 完整命令行
f flags 长模式标志
g pgrp 进程地组ID
G tpgid 控制tty进程组ID
j cutime 累计用户时间
J cstime 累计系统时间
k utime 用户时间
K stime 系统时间
m min_flt 次要页错误地数量
M maj_flt 重点页错误地数量
n cmin_flt 累计次要页错误
N cmaj_flt 累计重点页错误
o session 对话ID
p pid 进程ID
P ppid 父进程ID
r rss 驻留大小
R resident 驻留页
s size 内存大小(千字节)
S share 共享页地数量
t tty tty次要设备号
T start_time 进程启动地时间
U uid UID
u user 用户名
v vsize 总地虚拟内存数量(字节)
y priority 内核调度优先级
========================================ps aux 或 lax 输出的解释=========================
2、ps aux 或 lax 输出的解释
au(x) 输出格式 :
USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
USER: 进程所有者
PID: 进程ID
%CPU: 占用的 CPU 使用率
%MEM: 占用的内存使用率
VSZ: 占用的虚拟内存大小
RSS: 占用的内存大小
TTY: 终端的次要装置号码 (minor device number of tty)
STAT: 进程状态:
START: 启动进程的时间；
TIME: 进程消耗CPU的时间；
COMMAND:命令的名称和参数；
=========================================进程STAT状态==================================
D 无法中断的休眠状态（通常 IO 的进程）；
R 正在运行，在可中断队列中；
S 处于休眠状态，静止状态；
T 停止或被追踪，暂停执行；
W 进入内存交换（从内核2.6开始无效）；
X 死掉的进程；
Z 僵尸进程不存在但暂时无法消除；
W: 没有足够的记忆体分页可分配
WCHAN 正在等待的进程资源；
<: 高优先级进程
N: 低优先序进程
L: 有记忆体分页分配并锁在记忆体内 (即时系统或捱A I/O)，即,有些页被锁进内存
s 进程的领导者（在它之下有子进程）；
l 多进程的（使用 CLONE_THREAD, 类似 NPTL pthreads）；
+ 位于后台的进程组；
========================================kill 终止进程================================
kill 终止进程
有十几种控制进程的方法，下面是一些常用的方法:
kill -STOP [pid]
发送SIGSTOP (17,19,23)停止一个进程，而并不消灭这个进程。
kill -CONT [pid]
发送SIGCONT (19,18,25)重新开始一个停止的进程。
kill -KILL [pid]
发送SIGKILL (9)强迫进程立即停止，并且不实施清理操作。
kill -9 -1
终止你拥有的全部进程。
SIGKILL 和 SIGSTOP 信号不能被捕捉、封锁或者忽略，但是，其它的信号可以。所以这是你的终极武器。
==================================================范例==============================
$ ps
PID TTY TIME COMMAND
5800 ttyp0 00:00:00 bash
5835 ttyp0 00:00:00 ps
可以看到,显示地项目共分为四项,依次为PID(进程ID)、TTY(终端名称)、TIME(进程执行时 间)、COMMAND(该进程地命令行输入).
可以运用u选项来查看进程所有者及其他少许详细信息,如下所示：
$ ps u
USER PID %CPU %MEM USZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
test 5800 0.0 0.4 1892 1040 ttyp0 S Nov27 0:00 -bash
test 5836 0.0 0.3 2528 856 ttyp0 R Nov27 0:00 ps u
在bash进程前面有条横线,意味着该进程便是用户地登录shell,所以对于一个登录用户来说带短横线地进程只有一个.还可以看 到%CPU、%MEM两个选项,前者指该进程占用地CPU时间
和总时间地百分比;后者指该进程占用地内存和总内存地百分比.
在这种情况下看到了所有控制终端地进程;当然对于其他那些没有控制终端地进程 还是没有观察到,所以这时就需要运用x选项.运用x选项可以观察到所有地进程情况.
1)ps a 显示现行终端机下的所有程序，包括其他用户的程序。
2)ps -A 显示所有程序。
3)ps c 列出程序时，显示每个程序真正的指令名称，而不包含路径，参数或常驻服务的标示。
4)ps -e 此参数的效果和指定"A"参数相同。
5)ps e 列出程序时，显示每个程序所使用的环境变量。
6)ps f 用ASCII字符显示树状结构，表达程序间的相互关系。
7)ps -H 显示树状结构，表示程序间的相互关系。
8)ps -N 显示所有的程序，除了执行ps指令终端机下的程序之外。
9)ps s 采用程序信号的格式显示程序状况。
10)ps S 列出程序时，包括已中断的子程序资料。
11)ps -t<终端机编号> 指定终端机编号，并列出属于该终端机的程序的状况。
12)ps u 以用户为主的格式来显示程序状况。
13)ps x 显示所有程序，不以终端机来区分。
最常用的方法是ps -aux,然后再用管道符号导向到grep去查找特定的进程,然后再对特定的进程进行操作。
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luther@gliethttp:~$ ps --help
********* simple selection ********* ********* selection by list *********
-A all processes -C by command name
-N negate selection -G by real group ID (supports names)
-a all w/ tty except session leaders -U by real user ID (supports names)
-d all except session leaders -g by session OR by effective group name
-e all processes -p by process ID
T all processes on this terminal -s processes in the sessions given
a all w/ tty, including other users -t by tty
g OBSOLETE -- DO NOT USE -u by effective user ID (supports names)
r only running processes U processes for specified users
x processes w/o controlling ttys t by tty
*********** output format ********** *********** long options ***********
-o,o user-defined -f full --Group --User --pid --cols --ppid
-j,j job control s signal --group --user --sid --rows --info
-O,O preloaded -o v virtual memory --cumulative --format --deselect
-l,l long u user-oriented --sort --tty --forest --version
-F extra full X registers --heading --no-heading --context
********* misc options *********
-V,V show version L list format codes f ASCII art forest
-m,m,-L,-T,H threads S children in sum -y change -l format
-M,Z security data c true command name -c scheduling class
-w,w wide output n numeric WCHAN,UID -H process hierarchy
luther@gliethttp:~$ man ps
EXAMPLES
To see every process on the system using standard syntax:
ps -e
ps -ef
ps -eF
ps -ely
To see every process on the system using BSD syntax:
ps ax
ps axu
To print a process tree:
ps -ejH
ps axjf
To get info about threads:
ps -eLf
ps axms
To get security info:
ps -eo euser,ruser,suser,fuser,f,comm,label
ps axZ
ps -eM
To see every process running as root (real & effective ID) in user
format:
ps -U root -u root u
To see every process with a user-defined format:
ps -eo pid,tid,class,rtprio,ni,pri,psr,pcpu,stat,wchan:14,comm
ps axo stat,euid,ruid,tty,tpgid,sess,pgrp,ppid,pid,pcpu,comm
ps -eopid,tt,user,fname,tmout,f,wchan
Print only the process IDs of syslogd:
ps -C syslogd -o pid=
Print only the name of PID 42:
ps -p 42 -o comm=
SIMPLE PROCESS SELECTION
-A Select all processes. Identical to -e.
-N Select all processes except those that fulfill the
specified conditions. (negates the selection) Identical
to --deselect.
T Select all processes associated with this terminal.
Identical to the t option without any argument.
-a Select all processes except both session leaders (see
getsid(2)) and processes not associated with a
terminal.
a Lift the BSD-style "only yourself" restriction, which
is imposed upon the set of all processes when some
BSD-style (without "-") options are used or when the ps
personality setting is BSD-like. The set of processes
selected in this manner is in addition to the set of
processes selected by other means. An alternate
description is that this option causes ps to list all
processes with a terminal (tty), or to list all
processes when used together with the x option.
-d Select all processes except session leaders.
-e Select all processes. Identical to -A.
g Really all, even session leaders. This flag is obsolete
and may be discontinued in a future release. It is
normally implied by the a flag, and is only useful when
operating in the sunos4 personality.
r Restrict the selection to only running processes.
x Lift the BSD-style "must have a tty" restriction, which
is imposed upon the set of all processes when some
BSD-style (without "-") options are used or when the ps
personality setting is BSD-like. The set of processes
selected in this manner is in addition to the set of
processes selected by other means. An alternate
description is that this option causes ps to list all
processes owned by you (same EUID as ps), or to list
all processes when used together with the a option.
PROCESS SELECTION BY LIST
These options accept a single argument in the form of a blank-separated
or comma-separated list. They can be used multiple times.
For example: ps -p "1 2" -p 3,4
-C cmdlist Select by command name.
This selects the processes whose executable name is
given in cmdlist.
-G grplist Select by real group ID (RGID) or name.
This selects the processes whose real group name or ID
is in the grplist list. The real group ID identifies
the group of the user who created the process, see
getgid(2).
U userlist Select by effective user ID (EUID) or name.
This selects the processes whose effective user name or
ID is in userlist. The effective user ID describes the
user whose file access permissions are used by the
process (see geteuid(2)). Identical to -u and --user.
-U userlist select by real user ID (RUID) or name.
It selects the processes whose real user name or ID is
in the userlist list. The real user ID identifies the
user who created the process, see getuid(2).
-g grplist Select by session OR by effective group name.
Selection by session is specified by many standards,
but selection by effective group is the logical
behavior that several other operating systems use. This
ps will select by session when the list is completely
numeric (as sessions are). Group ID numbers will work
only when some group names are also specified. See the
-s and --group options.
p pidlist Select by process ID. Identical to -p and --pid.
-p pidlist Select by PID.
This selects the processes whose process ID numbers
appear in pidlist. Identical to p and --pid.
-s sesslist Select by session ID.
This selects the processes with a session ID specified
in sesslist.
t ttylist Select by tty. Nearly identical to -t and --tty, but
can also be used with an empty ttylist to indicate the
terminal associated with ps. Using the T option is
considered cleaner than using T with an empty ttylist.
-t ttylist Select by tty.
This selects the processes associated with the
terminals given in ttylist. Terminals (ttys, or screens
for text output) can be specified in several forms:
/dev/ttyS1, ttyS1, S1. A plain "-" may be used to
select processes not attached to any terminal.
-u userlist Select by effective user ID (EUID) or name.
This selects the processes whose effective user name or
ID is in userlist. The effective user ID describes the
user whose file access permissions are used by the
process (see geteuid(2)). Identical to U and --user.
--Group grplist Select by real group ID (RGID) or name. Identical to
-G.
--User userlist Select by real user ID (RUID) or name. Identical to -U.
--group grplist Select by effective group ID (EGID) or name.
This selects the processes whose effective group name
or ID is in grouplist. The effective group ID describes
the group whose file access permissions are used by the
process (see geteuid(2)). The -g option is often an
alternative to --group.
--pid pidlist Select by process ID. Identical to -p and p.
--ppid pidlist Select by parent process ID. This selects the processes
with a parent process ID in pidlist. That is, it
selects processes that are children of those listed in
pidlist.
--sid sesslist Select by session ID. Identical to -s.
--tty ttylist Select by terminal. Identical to -t and t.
--user userlist Select by effective user ID (EUID) or name. Identical
to -u and U.
-123 Identical to --sid 123.
123 Identical to --pid 123.
OUTPUT FORMAT CONTROL
These options are used to choose the information displayed by ps. The
output may differ by personality.
-F extra full format. See the -f option, which -F implies.
-O format is like -o, but preloaded with some default columns.
Identical to -o pid,format,state,tname,time,command or
-o pid,format,tname,time,cmd, see -o below.
O format is preloaded o (overloaded).
The BSD O option can act like -O (user-defined output
format with some common fields predefined) or can be
used to specify sort order. Heuristics are used to
determine the behavior of this option. To ensure that
the desired behavior is obtained (sorting or
formatting), specify the option in some other way (e.g.
with -O or --sort). When used as a formatting option,
it is identical to -O, with the BSD personality.
-M Add a column of security data. Identical to Z.
(for SE Linux)
X Register format.
Z Add a column of security data. Identical to -M.
(for SE Linux)
-c Show different scheduler information for the -l option.
-f does full-format listing. This option can be combined
with many other UNIX-style options to add additional
columns. It also causes the command arguments to be
printed. When used with -L, the NLWP (number of
threads) and LWP (thread ID) columns will be added. See
the c option, the format keyword args, and the format
keyword comm.
j BSD job control format.
-j jobs format
l display BSD long format.
-l long format. The -y option is often useful with this.
o format specify user-defined format. Identical to -o and
--format.
-o format user-defined format.
format is a single argument in the form of a
blank-separated or comma-separated list, which offers a
way to specify individual output columns. The
recognized keywords are described in the STANDARD
FORMAT SPECIFIERS section below. Headers may be renamed
(ps -o pid,ruser=RealUser -o comm=Command) as desired.
If all column headers are empty (ps -o pid= -o comm=)
then the header line will not be output. Column width
will increase as needed for wide headers; this may be
used to widen up columns such as WCHAN
(ps -o pid,wchan=WIDE-WCHAN-COLUMN -o comm). Explicit
width control (ps opid,wchan:42,cmd) is offered too.
The behavior of ps -o pid=X,comm=Y varies with
personality; output may be one column named "X,comm=Y"
or two columns named "X" and "Y". Use multiple -o
options when in doubt. Use the PS_FORMAT environment
variable to specify a default as desired; DefSysV and
DefBSD are macros that may be used to choose the
default UNIX or BSD columns.
s display signal format
u display user-oriented format
v display virtual memory format
-y Do not show flags; show rss in place of addr. This
option can only be used with -l.
--format format user-defined format. Identical to -o and o.
--context Display security context format. (for SE Linux)
OUTPUT MODIFIERS
-H show process hierarchy (forest)
N namelist Specify namelist file. Identical to -n, see -n above.
O order Sorting order. (overloaded)
The BSD O option can act like -O (user-defined output
format with some common fields predefined) or can be
used to specify sort order. Heuristics are used to
determine the behavior of this option. To ensure that
the desired behavior is obtained (sorting or
formatting), specify the option in some other way (e.g.
with -O or --sort).
For sorting, obsolete BSD O option syntax is
O[+|-]k1[,[+|-]k2[,...]]. It orders the processes
listing according to the multilevel sort specified by
the sequence of one-letter short keys k1, k2, ...
described in the OBSOLETE SORT KEYS section below.
The "+" is currently optional, merely re-iterating the
default direction on a key, but may help to distinguish
an O sort from an O format. The "-" reverses direction
only on the key it precedes.
S Sum up some information, such as CPU usage, from dead
child processes into their parent. This is useful for
examining a system where a parent process repeatedly
forks off short-lived children to do work.
c Show the true command name. This is derived from the
name of the executable file, rather than from the argv
value. Command arguments and any modifications to them
are thus not shown. This option effectively turns the
args format keyword into the comm format keyword; it is
useful with the -f format option and with the various
BSD-style format options, which all normally display
the command arguments. See the -f option, the format
keyword args, and the format keyword comm.
e Show the environment after the command.
f ASCII-art process hierarchy (forest)
h No header. (or, one header per screen in the BSD
personality)
The h option is problematic. Standard BSD ps uses this
option to print a header on each page of output, but
older Linux ps uses this option to totally disable the
header. This version of ps follows the Linux usage of
not printing the header unless the BSD personality has
been selected, in which case it prints a header on each
page of output. Regardless of the current personality,
you can use the long options --headers and --no-headers
to enable printing headers each page or disable headers
entirely, respectively.
k spec specify sorting order. Sorting syntax is
[+|-]key[,[+|-]key[,...]] Choose a multi-letter key
from the STANDARD FORMAT SPECIFIERS section. The "+" is
optional since default direction is increasing
numerical or lexicographic order. Identical to --sort.
Examples:
ps jaxkuid,-ppid,+pid
ps axk comm o comm,args
ps kstart_time -ef
-n namelist set namelist file. Identical to N.
The namelist file is needed for a proper WCHAN display,
and must match the current Linux kernel exactly for
correct output. Without this option, the default search
path for the namelist is:
$PS_SYSMAP
$PS_SYSTEM_MAP
/proc/*/wchan
/boot/System.map-`uname -r`
/boot/System.map
/lib/modules/`uname -r`/System.map
/usr/src/linux/System.map
/System.map
n Numeric output for WCHAN and USER. (including all types
of UID and GID)
-w Wide output. Use this option twice for unlimited width.
w Wide output. Use this option twice for unlimited width.
--cols n set screen width
--columns n set screen width
--cumulative include some dead child process data (as a sum with the
parent)
--forest ASCII art process tree
--headers repeat header lines, one per page of output
--no-headers print no header line at all. --no-heading is an alias
for this option.
--lines n set screen height
--rows n set screen height
--sort spec specify sorting order. Sorting syntax is
[+|-]key[,[+|-]key[,...]] Choose a multi-letter key
from the STANDARD FORMAT SPECIFIERS section. The "+" is
optional since default direction is increasing
numerical or lexicographic order. Identical to k. For
example: ps jax --sort=uid,-ppid,+pid
--width n set screen width
THREAD DISPLAY
H Show threads as if they were processes
-L Show threads, possibly with LWP and NLWP columns
-T Show threads, possibly with SPID column
m Show threads after processes
-m Show threads after processes
OTHER INFORMATION
L List all format specifiers.
-V Print the procps version.
V Print the procps version.
--help Print a help message.
--info Print debugging info.
--version Print the procps version.
NOTES
This ps works by reading the virtual files in /proc. This ps does not
need to be setuid kmem or have any privileges to run. Do not give this
ps any special permissions.
This ps needs access to namelist data for proper WCHAN display. For
kernels prior to 2.6, the System.map file must be installed.
CPU usage is currently expressed as the percentage of time spent
running during the entire lifetime of a process. This is not ideal,
and it does not conform to the standards that ps otherwise conforms to.
CPU usage is unlikely to add up to exactly 100%.
The SIZE and RSS fields don‘t count some parts of a process including
the page tables, kernel stack, struct thread_info, and struct
task_struct. This is usually at least 20 KiB of memory that is always
resident. SIZE is the virtual size of the process (code+data+stack).
Processes marked <defunct> are dead processes (so-called "zombies")
that remain because their parent has not destroyed them properly. These
processes will be destroyed by init(8) if the parent process exits.
PROCESS FLAGS
The sum of these values is displayed in the "F" column, which is
provided by the flags output specifier.
1 forked but didn‘t exec
4 used super-user privileges
PROCESS STATE CODES
Here are the different values that the s, stat and state output
specifiers (header "STAT" or "S") will display to describe the state of
a process.
D Uninterruptible sleep (usually IO)
R Running or runnable (on run queue)
S Interruptible sleep (waiting for an event to complete)
T Stopped, either by a job control signal or because it is being
traced.
W paging (not valid since the 2.6.xx kernel)
X dead (should never be seen)
Z Defunct ("zombie") process, terminated but not reaped by its
parent.
For BSD formats and when the stat keyword is used, additional
characters may be displayed:
< high-priority (not nice to other users)
N low-priority (nice to other users)
L has pages locked into memory (for real-time and custom IO)
s is a session leader
l is multi-threaded (using CLONE_THREAD, like NPTL pthreads do)
+ is in the foreground process group
OBSOLETE SORT KEYS
These keys are used by the BSD O option (when it is used for sorting).
The GNU --sort option doesn‘t use these keys, but the specifiers
described below in the STANDARD FORMAT SPECIFIERS section. Note that
the values used in sorting are the internal values ps uses and not the
"cooked" values used in some of the output format fields (e.g. sorting
on tty will sort into device number, not according to the terminal name
displayed). Pipe ps output into the sort(1) command if you want to sort
the cooked values.
KEY LONG DESCRIPTION
c cmd simple name of executable
C pcpu cpu utilization
f flags flags as in long format F field
g pgrp process group ID
G tpgid controlling tty process group ID
j cutime cumulative user time
J cstime cumulative system time
k utime user time
m min_flt number of minor page faults
M maj_flt number of major page faults
n cmin_flt cumulative minor page faults
N cmaj_flt cumulative major page faults
o session session ID
p pid process ID
P ppid parent process ID
r rss resident set size
R resident resident pages
s size memory size in kilobytes
S share amount of shared pages
t tty the device number of the controlling tty
T start_time time process was started
U uid user ID number
u user user name
v vsize total VM size in kB
y priority kernel scheduling priority
AIX FORMAT DESCRIPTORS
This ps supports AIX format descriptors, which work somewhat like the
formatting codes of printf(1) and printf(3). For example, the normal
default output can be produced with this: ps -eo "%p %y %x %c".
The NORMAL codes are described in the next section.
CODE NORMAL HEADER
%C pcpu %CPU
%G group GROUP
%P ppid PPID
%U user USER
%a args COMMAND
%c comm COMMAND
%g rgroup RGROUP
%n nice NI
%p pid PID
%r pgid PGID
%t etime ELAPSED
%u ruser RUSER
%x time TIME
%y tty TTY
%z vsz VSZ
STANDARD FORMAT SPECIFIERS
Here are the different keywords that may be used to control the output
format (e.g. with option -o) or to sort the selected processes with the
GNU-style --sort option.
For example: ps -eo pid,user,args --sort user
This version of ps tries to recognize most of the keywords used in
other implementations of ps.
The following user-defined format specifiers may contain spaces: args,
cmd, comm, command, fname, ucmd, ucomm, lstart, bsdstart, start.
Some keywords may not be available for sorting.
CODE HEADER DESCRIPTION
%cpu %CPU cpu utilization of the process in "##.#" format.
Currently, it is the CPU time used divided by the time the
process has been running (cputime/realtime ratio),
expressed as a percentage. It will not add up to 100%
unless you are lucky. (alias pcpu).
%mem %MEM ratio of the process‘s resident set size to the physical
memory on the machine, expressed as a percentage.
(alias pmem).
args COMMANDcommand with all its arguments as a string. Modifications
to the arguments may be shown. The output in this column
may contain spaces. A process marked <defunct> is partly
dead, waiting to be fully destroyed by its parent.
Sometimes the process args will be unavailable; when this
happens, ps will instead print the executable name in
brackets. (alias cmd, command). See also the comm format
keyword, the -f option, and the c option.
When specified last, this column will extend to the edge
of the display. If ps can not determine display width, as
when output is redirected (piped) into a file or another
command, the output width is undefined. (it may be 80,
unlimited, determined by the TERM variable, and so on) The
COLUMNS environment variable or --cols option may be used
to exactly determine the width in this case. The w or -w
option may be also be used to adjust width.
blocked BLOCKEDmask of the blocked signals, see signal(7). According to
the width of the field, a 32-bit or 64-bit mask in
hexadecimal format is displayed.
(alias sig_block, sigmask).
bsdstart START time the command started. If the process was started less
than 24 hours ago, the output format is " HH:MM", else it
is "mmm dd" (where mmm is the three letters of the month).
See also lstart, start, start_time, and stime.
bsdtime TIME accumulated cpu time, user + system. The display format is
usually "MMM:SS", but can be shifted to the right if the
process used more than 999 minutes of cpu time.
c C processor utilization. Currently, this is the integer
value of the percent usage over the lifetime of the
process. (see %cpu).
caught CAUGHT mask of the caught signals, see signal(7). According to
the width of the field, a 32 or 64 bits mask in
hexadecimal format is displayed.
(alias sig_catch, sigcatch).
class CLS scheduling class of the process. (alias policy, cls).
Field‘s possible values are:
- not reported
TS SCHED_OTHER
FF SCHED_FIFO
RR SCHED_RR
B SCHED_BATCH
ISO SCHED_ISO
IDL SCHED_IDLE
? unknown value
cls CLS scheduling class of the process. (alias policy, class).
Field‘s possible values are:
- not reported
TS SCHED_OTHER
FF SCHED_FIFO
RR SCHED_RR
B SCHED_BATCH
ISO SCHED_ISO
IDL SCHED_IDLE
? unknown value
cmd CMD see args. (alias args, command).
comm COMMANDcommand name (only the executable name). Modifications to
the command name will not be shown. A process marked
<defunct> is partly dead, waiting to be fully destroyed by
its parent. The output in this column may contain spaces.
(alias ucmd, ucomm). See also the args format keyword, the
-f option, and the c option.
When specified last, this column will extend to the edge
of the display. If ps can not determine display width, as
when output is redirected (piped) into a file or another
command, the output width is undefined. (it may be 80,
unlimited, determined by the TERM variable, and so on) The
COLUMNS environment variable or --cols option may be used
to exactly determine the width in this case. The w or -w
option may be also be used to adjust width.
command COMMANDsee args. (alias args, cmd).
cp CP per-mill (tenths of a percent) CPU usage. (see %cpu).
cputime TIME cumulative CPU time, "[dd-]hh:mm:ss" format. (alias time).
egid EGID effective group ID number of the process as a decimal
integer. (alias gid).
egroup EGROUP effective group ID of the process. This will be the
textual group ID, if it can be obtained and the field
width permits, or a decimal representation otherwise.
(alias group).
eip EIP instruction pointer.
esp ESP stack pointer.
etime ELAPSEDelapsed time since the process was started, in the
form [[dd-]hh:]mm:ss.
euid EUID effective user ID. (alias uid).
euser EUSER effective user name. This will be the textual user ID,
if it can be obtained and the field width permits,
or a decimal representation otherwise. The n option can be
used to force the decimal representation.
(alias uname, user).
f F flags associated with the process, see the PROCESS FLAGS
section. (alias flag, flags).
fgid FGID filesystem access group ID. (alias fsgid).
fgroup FGROUP filesystem access group ID. This will be the textual
user ID, if it can be obtained and the field width
permits, or a decimal representation otherwise.
(alias fsgroup).
flag F see f. (alias f, flags).
flags F see f. (alias f, flag).
fname COMMANDfirst 8 bytes of the base name of the process‘s executable
file. The output in this column may contain spaces.
fuid FUID filesystem access user ID. (alias fsuid).
fuser FUSER filesystem access user ID. This will be the textual
user ID, if it can be obtained and the field width
permits, or a decimal representation otherwise.
gid GID see egid. (alias egid).
group GROUP see egroup. (alias egroup).
ignored IGNOREDmask of the ignored signals, see signal(7). According to
the width of the field, a 32-bit or 64-bit mask in
hexadecimal format is displayed. (alias sig_ignore,
sigignore).
label LABEL security label, most commonly used for SE Linux context
data. This is for the Mandatory Access Control ("MAC")
found on high-security systems.
lstart STARTEDtime the command started. See also bsdstart, start,
start_time, and stime.
lwp LWP lwp (light weight process, or thread) ID of the lwp being
reported. (alias spid, tid).
ni NI nice value. This ranges from 19 (nicest) to -20 (not nice
to others), see nice(1). (alias nice).
nice NI see ni. (alias ni).
nlwp NLWP number of lwps (threads) in the process. (alias thcount).
nwchan WCHAN address of the kernel function where the process is
sleeping (use wchan if you want the kernel function name).
Running tasks will display a dash (‘-‘) in this column.
pcpu %CPU see %cpu. (alias %cpu).
pending PENDINGmask of the pending signals. See signal(7). Signals
pending on the process are distinct from signals pending
on individual threads. Use the m option or the -m option
to see both. According to the width of the field, a 32-bit
or 64-bit mask in hexadecimal format is displayed.
(alias sig).
pgid PGID process group ID or, equivalently, the process ID of the
process group leader. (alias pgrp).
pgrp PGRP see pgid. (alias pgid).
pid PID process ID number of the process.
pmem %MEM see %mem. (alias %mem).
policy POL scheduling class of the process. (alias class, cls).
Possible values are:
- not reported
TS SCHED_OTHER
FF SCHED_FIFO
RR SCHED_RR
B SCHED_BATCH
ISO SCHED_ISO
IDL SCHED_IDLE
? unknown value
ppid PPID parent process ID.
pri PRI priority of the process. Higher number means lower
priority
psr PSR processor that process is currently assigned to.
rgid RGID real group ID.
rgroup RGROUP real group name. This will be the textual group ID, if it
can be obtained and the field width permits, or a decimal
representation otherwise.
rss RSS resident set size, the non-swapped physical memory that a
task has used (in kiloBytes). (alias rssize, rsz).
rssize RSS see rss. (alias rss, rsz).
rsz RSZ see rss. (alias rss, rssize).
rtprio RTPRIO realtime priority.
ruid RUID real user ID.
ruser RUSER real user ID. This will be the textual user ID, if it can
be obtained and the field width permits, or a decimal
representation otherwise.
s S minimal state display (one character). See section PROCESS
STATE CODES for the different values. See also stat if you
want additional information displayed. (alias state).
sched SCH scheduling policy of the process. The policies SCHED_OTHER
(SCHED_NORMAL), SCHED_FIFO, SCHED_RR, SCHED_BATCH,
SCHED_ISO, and SCHED_IDLE are respectively displayed as
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
sess SESS session ID or, equivalently, the process ID of the
session leader. (alias session, sid).
sgi_p P processor that the process is currently executing on.
Displays "*" if the process is not currently running or
runnable.
sgid SGID saved group ID. (alias svgid).
sgroup SGROUP saved group name. This will be the textual group ID, if it
can be obtained and the field width permits, or a decimal
representation otherwise.
sid SID see sess. (alias sess, session).
sig PENDINGsee pending. (alias pending, sig_pend).
sigcatch CAUGHT see caught. (alias caught, sig_catch).
sigignore IGNOREDsee ignored. (alias ignored, sig_ignore).
sigmask BLOCKEDsee blocked. (alias blocked, sig_block).
size SZ approximate amount of swap space that would be required if
the process were to dirty all writable pages and then be
swapped out. This number is very rough!
spid SPID see lwp. (alias lwp, tid).
stackp STACKP address of the bottom (start) of stack for the process.
start STARTEDtime the command started. If the process was started less
than 24 hours ago, the output format is "HH:MM:SS", else
it is " mmm dd" (where mmm is a three-letter month name).
See also lstart, bsdstart, start_time, and stime.
start_timeSTART starting time or date of the process. Only the year will
be displayed if the process was not started the same year
ps was invoked, or "mmmdd" if it was not started the same
day, or "HH:MM" otherwise. See also bsdstart, start,
lstart, and stime.
stat STAT multi-character process state. See section PROCESS STATE
CODES for the different values meaning. See also s and
state if you just want the first character displayed.
state S see s. (alias s).
suid SUID saved user ID. (alias svuid).
suser SUSER saved user name. This will be the textual user ID, if it
can be obtained and the field width permits, or a decimal
representation otherwise. (alias svuser).
svgid SVGID see sgid. (alias sgid).
svuid SVUID see suid. (alias suid).
sz SZ size in physical pages of the core image of the process.
This includes text, data, and stack space. Device mappings
are currently excluded; this is subject to change. See vsz
and rss.
thcount THCNT see nlwp. (alias nlwp). number of kernel threads owned by
the process.
tid TID see lwp. (alias lwp).
time TIME cumulative CPU time, "[dd-]hh:mm:ss" format.
(alias cputime).
tname TTY controlling tty (terminal). (alias tt, tty).
tpgid TPGID ID of the foreground process group on the tty (terminal)
that the process is connected to, or -1 if the process is
not connected to a tty.
tt TT controlling tty (terminal). (alias tname, tty).
tty TT controlling tty (terminal). (alias tname, tt).
ucmd CMD see comm. (alias comm, ucomm).
ucomm COMMANDsee comm. (alias comm, ucmd).
uid UID see euid. (alias euid).
uname USER see euser. (alias euser, user).
user USER see euser. (alias euser, uname).
vsize VSZ see vsz. (alias vsz).
vsz VSZ virtual memory size of the process in KiB
(1024-byte units). Device mappings are currently excluded;
this is subject to change. (alias vsize).
wchan WCHAN name of the kernel function in which the process is
sleeping, a "-" if the process is running, or a "*" if the
process is multi-threaded and ps is not displaying
threads.
ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
The following environment variables could affect ps:
COLUMNS
Override default display width.
LINES
Override default display height.
PS_PERSONALITY
Set to one of posix, old, linux, bsd, sun, digital...
(see section PERSONALITY below).
CMD_ENV
Set to one of posix, old, linux, bsd, sun, digital...
(see section PERSONALITY below).
I_WANT_A_BROKEN_PS
Force obsolete command line interpretation.
LC_TIME
Date format.
PS_COLORS
Not currently supported.
PS_FORMAT
Default output format override. You may set this to a format string
of the type used for the -o option. The DefSysV and DefBSD values
are particularly useful.
PS_SYSMAP
Default namelist (System.map) location.
PS_SYSTEM_MAP
Default namelist (System.map) location.
POSIXLY_CORRECT
Don‘t find excuses to ignore bad "features".
POSIX2
When set to "on", acts as POSIXLY_CORRECT.
UNIX95
Don‘t find excuses to ignore bad "features".
_XPG
Cancel CMD_ENV=irix non-standard behavior.
In general, it is a bad idea to set these variables. The one exception
is CMD_ENV or PS_PERSONALITY, which could be set to Linux for normal
systems. Without that setting, ps follows the useless and bad parts of
the Unix98 standard.
PERSONALITY
390 like the S/390 OpenEdition ps
aix like AIX ps
bsd like FreeBSD ps (totally non-standard)
compaq like Digital Unix ps
debian like the old Debian ps
digital like Tru64 (was Digital Unix, was OSF/1) ps
gnu like the old Debian ps
hp like HP-UX ps
hpux like HP-UX ps
irix like Irix ps
linux ***** RECOMMENDED *****
old like the original Linux ps (totally non-standard)
os390 like OS/390 Open Edition ps
posix standard
s390 like OS/390 Open Edition ps
sco like SCO ps
sgi like Irix ps
solaris2 like Solaris 2+ (SunOS 5) ps
sunos4 like SunOS 4 (Solaris 1) ps (totally non-standard)
svr4 standard
sysv standard
tru64 like Tru64 (was Digital Unix, was OSF/1) ps
unix standard
unix95 standard
unix98 standard
SEE ALSO
top(1), pgrep(1), pstree(1), proc(5).
STANDARDS
This ps conforms to:
1 Version 2 of the Single Unix Specification
2 The Open Group Technical Standard Base Specifications, Issue 6
3 IEEE Std 1003.1, 2004 Edition
4 X/Open System Interfaces Extension [UP XSI]
5 ISO/IEC 9945:2003
AUTHOR
ps was originally written by Branko Lankester <lankeste@fwi.uva.nl>.
Michael K. Johnson <johnsonm@redhat.com> re-wrote it significantly to
use the proc filesystem, changing a few things in the process. Michael
Shields <mjshield@nyx.cs.du.edu> added the pid-list feature. Charles
Blake <cblake@bbn.com> added multi-level sorting, the dirent-style
library, the device name-to-number mmaped database, the approximate
binary search directly on System.map, and many code and documentation
cleanups. David Mossberger-Tang wrote the generic BFD support for
psupdate. Albert Cahalan <albert@users.sf.net> rewrote ps for full
Unix98 and BSD support, along with some ugly hacks for obsolete and
foreign syntax.
Please send bug reports to <procps-feedback@lists.sf.net>.
No subscription is required or suggested.
Linux July 28, 2004 PS(1)
http://blog.chinaunix.net/uid-25681671-id-3201927.html
