Python Tricks:Python’s Functions Are First-Class
Python’s functions are first-class objects. You can assign them to variables, store them in data structures, pass them as arguments to other functions, and even return them as values from other functions.
Grokking these concepts intuitively will make understanding advanced features in Python like lambdas and decorators much easier. It also puts you on a path towards functional programming techniques.
Over the next few pages I’ll guide you through a number of examples to help you develop this intuitive understanding. The examples will building on top of each other, so you might want to read them in sequence and even to try out some of them in a Python interpreter session as you go along.
Wrapping your head around the concepts we’ll be discussing here might take a little longer than you’d expect. Don’t worry–that’s completely normal. I’ve been there. You might feel like you’re banging your head against the wall, and then suddenly things will “click” and fall into place when you’re ready.
Throughout this chapter I’ll be using this yell function for demonstration purposes. It’s a simple toy example with easily recognizable output:
def yell(text):
... return text.upper() + '!'
...
>>> yell('hello')
'HELLO!'
Functions Are Objects
All data in a Python program is represented by objects or relations between objects. Things like strings, lists, modules and functions are all objects. There’s nothing particularly special about functions in Python. They’re also just objects.
Because the yell function is an object
>>> bark = yell
This line doesn’t call the function. It takes the function object referenced by yell and creates a second name, bark,that points to it. You could now also execute the same underlying function object by calling bark:
```js>>> bark('woof')
'WOOF!'
Function objects and their names are two separate concerns. Here’s more proof: You can delete the function’s original name(yell). Since another name (bark) still points to the underlying function, you can still call the function throught it:
```js
>>> del yell
>>> yell('hello?)
File "<stdin>", line 1
yell('hello?)
SyntaxError: EOL while scanning string literal
>>> bark('hey')
By the way, Python attaches a string identifier to every function at creation time for debugging purposes. You can access this internal identifier with name attribute:
>>> bark.__name__
'yell'
Now, while the function’s name is still “yell,” that doesn’t affect how you can access the function object from your code. The name identifier is merely a debugging aid. A variable pointing to a function and the function itself
Functions Can Be Stored in Data Structures
Since functions are first-class citizens, you can store them in data structures, just like you can with other objects. For example, you can add functions to a list:
>>> funcs = [bark, str.lower, str.capitalize]
>>> funcs
[<function yell at 0x7f7eea65e310>, <method 'lower' of 'str' objects>, <method 'capitalize' of 'str' objects>]
Accessing the function objects stored inside the list works like it would with any other type of object:
>>> for f in funcs:
... print(f, f('hey there'))
...
<function yell at 0x7f7eea65e310> HEY THERE!
<method 'lower' of 'str' objects> hey there
<method 'capitalize' of 'str' objects> Hey there
You can even call a function object stored in the list without first assigning it to a variable. You can do the lookup and then immediately call the resulting “disembodied” (无实体) function object within a single expression:
>>> funcs[0]('heyho')
'HEYHO!'
Functions Can Be Passed to Other Functions
Because functions are objects, you can pass them as arguments to other functions. Here’s a greet function that formats a greeting string using the function object passed to it and then prints it:
>>> def greet(func):
... greeting = func('Hi, I am a Python program')
... print(greeting)
You can influence the resulting greeting by passing in different functions. Here’s what happens if you pass the bark function to greet:
>>> greet(bark)
HI, I AM A PYTHON PROGRAM!
Of course, you could also define a new function to generate a different flavor of greeting. For example, the following whisper function might work better if you don’t want your Python programs to sound like Optimus Prime:
>>> def whisper(text):
... return text.lower() + '...'
>>> greet(whisper)
hi, i am a python program...
The ability to pass function objects as arguments to other functions is powerful. It allows you to abstract away and pass around behavior in your programs. In this example,the greet function stays the same but you can influence its output by passing in different greeting behaviors.
Functions that can accept other functions as arguments are also called higher-order functions(高阶函数). They are a necessity for the functional programming style.
The classical example for higher-order functions in Python is the built in map function. It takes a function object and an utterable, and then calls the function on each element in the itterable, yielding the results as it goes along.
Here’s how you might format a sequence of greetings all at once by mapping
>>> list(map(bark, ['hello', 'hey', 'hi']))
['HELLO!', 'HEY!', 'HI!']
As you saw, map went through the entire list and applied the bark function to each element. As a result, we now have a new list object with modified greeting strings.
Functions Can Be Nested
Perhaps surprisingly, Python allows functions to be defined inside other functions. These are often called nested functions or inner functions. Here’s an example:
>>> def speak(text):
... def whisper(t):
... return t.lower() + '...'
... return whisper(text)
>>> speak('Hello, World')
'hello, world...'
Now, what’s going on here? Every time you call speak, it defines a new inner function whisper and then calls it immediately after. My brain’s starting to itch just a little here but, all in all, that’s still relatively straightforward stuff.
Here’s the kicker though–whisper does not exist
>>> whisper('Yo')
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<input>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'whisper' is not defined
>>> speak.whisper
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<input>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: 'function' object has no attribute 'whisper'
But what if you really wanted to access that nested whisper function from outside speak? Well, functions are objects-you can return
For example, here’s a function defining two inner functions. Depending on the argument passed to top-level function, it selects and returns one of the inner functions to the caller:
>>> def get_speak_func(volume):
... def whisper(text):
... return text.lower() + '...'
... def yell(text):
... return text.upper() + '!'
... if volume > 0.5:
... return yell
... else:
... return whisper
Notice how get_speak_func doesn’t actually call
>>> get_speak_func(0.3)
<function get_speak_func.<locals>.whisper at 0x7f7eea65e5e0>
>>> get_speak_func(0.7)
<function get_speak_func.<locals>.yell at 0x7f7eea65e700>
Of course, you could then go on and call the returned function, either directly or by assigning it to a variable name first:
>>> speak_func = get_speak_func(0.7)
>>> speak_func('Hello')
'HELLO!'
Let that sink in for a second here… This means not only can functions accept behaviors through arguments but they can also return behaviors. How cool
You know what, things are starting to get a little loopy here. I’m going to take a quick coffee break☕️ before I continue writing (and I suggest you do the same) 😄
Functions Can Capture Local State
You just saw how functions can contain inner functions, and that it’s even possible to return these(otherwise hidden) inner functions from the parent function.
Best put on your seat belt now because it’s going to get a little crazier still – we’re about to enter even deeper functional programming territory. (You had that coffee☕️break, right?)
Not only can functions return other functions, these inner functions can also capture and carry some of the parent function’s state
I’m going to slightly rewrite the previous get_\speak_func example to illustrate this. The new version takes a “volume” and a “text” argument right away to make the returned function immediately callable:
>>> def get_speak_func(text, volume):
... def whisper():
... return text.lower() + '...'
... def yell():
... return text.upper() + '!'
... if volume > 0.5:
... return yell
... else:
... return whisper
...
>>> get_speak_func('Hello, World', 0.7)()
'HELLO, WORLD!'
Take a good look at the inner functions whisper and yell now. Notice how they no longer have a text parameter? But somehow they can still access the text parameter defined in the parent function. In fact, they seem to capture
Functions that do this are called lexical closures (or just closures,
In practical terms, this means not only can functions return behaviors but they can also pre-configure those behaviors.
>>> def make_adder(n):
... def add(x):
... return x + n
... return add
...
>>> plus_3 = make_adder(3)
>>> plus_5 = make_adder(5)
>>> plus_3(4)
7
>>> plus_5(4)
9
In this example, make_adders serves as a factory
Objects Can Behave Like Functions
While all functions are objects in Python, the reverse isn’t true. Objects aren’t functions. But they can be made callable, which allows you to treat them like functions
If an object is callable it means you can use the round parentheses function call syntax on it and even pass in function call arguments. This is all powered by the call dunder method.
Here’s an example of class defining a callable object:
>>> class Adder:
... def __init__(self, n):
... self.n = n
... def __call__(self, x):
... return self.n + x
...
>>> plus_3 = Adder(3)
>>> plus_3(4)
7
Behind the scenes, “calling” an object instance as a function attempts to execute the object’s call method.
Of course, not all objects will be callable. That’s why there’s a built-in callable function to check whether an object appears to be callable or not:
>>> callable(plus_3)
True
>>> callable(yell)
True
>>> callable('hello')
False
